# Gaussian Discriminant Analysis

We begin with a definition. Consider the following general classification problem: we are given a set of points $\{x_1, \ldots, x_N\} \in \mathbb{R}^d$. We seek to assign each of these to one of $K$ possible classes $C_k$. Let $\delta(x): \mathbb{R}^d \to \{1, \ldots, K\}$ be our discriminant function which for a given input $x$ computes an assignment $k$ of $x$ to one of the $K$ classes. The model we will define provides a convenient and intuitive assignment rule for $\delta$. We define $$\delta(x) := \max_k p(C_k|x)$$ One common method for arriving at a posterior distribution $p(C_k|x)$ is to make an assumption about (or choose a concrete PDF for) the class-conditional densities $p(x|C_k)$ and then apply Bayes' Rule to infer the posterior. In order to concretize our presentation, let's turn our attention to two models which make the assumption that the class-conditional densities are independentally Gaussian.

## Linear Discriminant Analysis

Linear Discriminant Analysis, abbreviated LDA, is a generative model which gives linear decision boundaries separating classes. Before we present the core of the model, recall the PDF for the multivariate normal distribution having mean $\mu = [\mu_1, \ldots, \mu_d]^T \in \mathbb{R}^d$ and covariance $\Sigma$ $$\mathcal{N}(x|\mu, \Sigma) = \frac{1}{(2\pi)^{d/2}|\Sigma|^{1/2}} e^{-\frac{1}{2}(x-\mu)^T\Sigma^{-1}(x-\mu)}$$ The LDA model derives from the following three assumptions
1. Each class has its own mean $\mu_k \in \mathbb{R}^d$
2. The classes share a covariance matrix $\Sigma$
3. $p(x|C_k) \sim \mathcal{N}(x|\mu_k, \Sigma)$
Given the above, we obtain $p(C_k|x)$ using Bayes' Rule $$p(C_k|x) = \frac{p(x|C_k)p(C_k)}{\sum_{l=1}^K p(x|C_l)p(C_l)}$$ We can define a convenient shorthand to simplify notation. Let $\pi_k = p(C_k)$ be the prior associated with class $k$. Then the above is written as $$p(C_k|x) = \frac{p(x|C_k)\pi_k}{\sum_{l=1}^K p(x|C_l)\pi_l}$$ Note that the summation in the denominator is invariant in each of the $k$ posteriors, so we can ignore it in our maximization. Now, let's take a look at $\delta_k(x)$. It maximizes over $k$ the posteriors $p(C_k|x)$. Equivalently, we can maximize $\ln{p(C_k|x)}$ over $k$. Combining this with the expression for $p(C_k|x)$ given by Bayes' Rule, we get the following \begin{align*} \delta_k(x) &= \max_k p(C_k|x) \\ &= \max_k p(x|C_k)\pi_k \\ &= \ln (p(x|C_k)\pi_k) \\ &= \ln\left({\frac{\pi_k}{(2\pi)^{d/2}|\Sigma|^{1/2}} e^{-\frac{1}{2}(x-\mu)^T\Sigma^{-1}(x-\mu)}}\right) \\ &= -\frac{1}{2}(x-\mu_k)^T\Sigma^{-1}(x-\mu_k) - \frac{1}{2}\ln{|\Sigma|} + \frac{d}{2}\ln{2\pi} + \ln{(\pi_k)} \\ &= -\frac{1}{2}x^T\Sigma^{-1}x + x^T\Sigma^{-1}\mu_k - \frac{1}{2}\mu_k^T\Sigma^{-1}\mu_k - \frac{1}{2}\ln{|\Sigma|} - \frac{d}{2}\ln{(2\pi)} + \ln{(\pi_k)}\\ \end{align*} Notice, that the terms $-\frac{1}{2}x^T\Sigma^{-1} x$, $-\frac{1}{2}\ln{|\Sigma|}$, and $\frac{d}{2}\ln{(2\pi)}$ are shared across classes and do not influence the choice of $k$. Thus we can remove them to get the final form of the class discriminant function $$\delta_k(x) = x^T\Sigma^{-1}\mu_k - \frac{1}{2}\mu_k^T\Sigma^{-1}\mu_k + \ln(\pi_k)$$ The {\it linear} in linear discriminant analysis comes from the fact that $\delta_k(x)$ is linear in $x$, specifically in the term $x^T{\Sigma^{-1}}\mu_k$. The decision boundary between any two classes $j$ and $k$ is accordingly linear and is given by $\{x : \delta_j(x) = \delta_k(x) \}$. Our formulation of the classification problem is now complete, and we have a concrete decision rule for assigning $x$ to a class $k$, namely $$\delta(x) = \max_k \delta_k(x)$$

We now generalize the LDA decision rule by removing the simplifying assumption that each of the $k$ classes shares a common covariance matrix. Instead, we allow each class to define its own covariance $\Sigma_k$. We proceed to derive the discriminant function $\delta_k(x)$ in exactly the same way as was done for LDA. The only place previously where we used the shared covariance assumption was in the removal of the terms $-\frac{1}{2}x^T\Sigma^{-1} x$ and $-\frac{1}{2}\ln{|\Sigma|}$ from the $k$-class discriminant function. Since we are no longer making that simplifying assumption, we accordingly reinsert these terms to get $$\delta_k(x) = -\frac{1}{2}x^T\Sigma_k^{-1}x + x^T\Sigma_k^{-1}\mu_k - \frac{1}{2}\mu_k\Sigma_k^{-1}\mu_k - \frac{1}{2}\ln{|\Sigma_k|}$$ The quadratic dependence of $\delta_k(x)$ on $x$ is clear, and the new discriminant functions for the $k$ classes give quadratic decision boundaries.